Human Development Discussion Questions Discussion Points are awarded for comments that · reflect that you have read the required text and readings · that y

Human Development Discussion Questions Discussion Points are awarded for comments that · reflect that you have read the required text and readings · that you have prepared the discussion questions in advance · that you have thought about the content · that you have attempted to understand the readings · and that you are able to apply the content to “real life.” In other words, quality comments reflect effort, accuracy, and thoroughness. If you do not understand the material, you can still earn participation points by demonstrating that you have made an effort to understand the material and that you have read the text. Trying to struggle with and figure out the information merits points. I expect you to make posts that directly address all parts of the discussion questions as well as respond to others’ postings. Points awarded for responses to others’ postings will be awarded using the same criteria as original posts (see above, see syllabus).

You will not earn points for posts/replies that do not meet the above criteria or for posts/replies that simply reflect information from your personal life without incorporating specific concepts and understanding of the chapter.

Your reply should focus on enhancing your peer’s discussion and not on the organization or if you enjoyed reading it. This can be mentioned but should not be the focus. Further, you will not earn points by simply stating that you agree or disagree with a classmate without fully supporting your opinion with concepts from the course material. Your peer response must enhance your peer’s post while incorporating concepts from the course material directly related to the discussion question.

Required: Two posts per chapter. Two posts per chapter. Original posts must be a minimum of 400 words combined. (approx 200 words each).

Required: Two responses to peers’ posts per chapter. Peer responses must be a minimum of 125-150 words for each peer response.

Select two of the topics below to discuss. Inside your discussion always start by titling your post in bold using one of the topic titles below and then discuss your topic starting on the next line. You will then reply to two of your peers’ posts from either the same or different topic. On the top line of your peer responses write “reply to:” and then the title of the peers’ post to which you are responding. Start your peer response on the next line.

Complete 2 of the 4 following discussion topics.

Discussion A) 2 1/2 year-old brother

Your younger brother is 2 ½ years old. You are trying to teach him some new words. Using Piagetian ideas like assimilation and accommodation, what approach would you take and what would you expect to happen. Give some examples of words you would teach him and how you would do it. Describe the achievements and limitations of your brother’s stage of cognitive development.

Discussion B) Moral Dilemma (addressing parts 1 and 2)

Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral development by presenting a series of moral dilemmas like the one below. He was more interested in the reasons for participants responses than whether behavior was judged right or wrong. Read the moral dilemma below and answer the questions that follow.”In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, and the druggist was charging ten times what it cost him. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together $1000, which was half of what the drug cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug, and I am going to make money from it”. So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife (Colby, et al., 1983, pp.77).”
1. What moral judgment would you make about the dilemma? Should Heinze have stolen the drug? Why or why not?
Based on the research using moral dilemma like that presented above Lawrence Kohlberg then classified the development of moral behavior into three levels with each level having two stages. He noted that people progress one stage at a time. Below is a figure of Kohlber’s stage theory.

After reviewing the stages in your textbook address the following question.

2. During a game of “hide and seek,” your brother breaks a dish. He tries to hide it from you by putting it under the cushion of the couch. When you find it, he tries to deny that he did it and then he starts crying and says he is scared of getting in trouble. Describe his stage and level of moral development according to Lawrence Kohlberg. Describe a hypothetical response he might give if he were in either of the other two levels (indicate which level and why he responded that way).

Discussion C) Psychosocial stage

Using the theory of Erik Erikson, indicate which stage of development you are in. Identify the psychosocial developmental stage of each of two of the following your parents, your siblings, your children. Explain.

Discussion D) Prenatal Development

Imagine that you are a developmental psychologist working in a hospital on an interdisciplinary team. You first patient of the day is a woman who tells you that she is concerned that her pregnancy is not developing normally. She is two months pregnant. Please answer the following questions: a. What are the stages of normal prenatal development? Describe each stage and what occurs in each. b. What physical and psychological influences could affect the fetus? c.What else would you need to know to evaluate her situation? Chapter 10
Human Development Across
the Life Span
Dr. Ami Smith
PSYC 100
Developmental Psychology
 A branch of psychology that studies physical,
cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan

how humans grow, develop, and change throughout their life.
Theories of Development
Figure 10.5 Stage theories of development
Becoming Unique: Personality Development
 Stage theories, three components
 progress through stages in order because each stage
build on the previous one
 progress through stages related to age
 major discontinuities in development
Theories of Developmental Psychology
 Developmental Psychology
 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
❑Jean Piaget
❑ Swiss Psychologist
1896-1990
❑ Studied cognitive processes
of children and how they
understand the world
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Important concepts:
 Changes in schemes underlie four stages of cognitive
development
 Each stage reflects a qualitatively different way of reasoning and
understanding the world
 Stages occur in fixed sequence

Accomplishments of one stage provide the foundation for the next
stage
Children throughout the world seem to progress through the
stages in the same order, they show individual differences in the
rate they pass through them
 Each child’s rate is influenced by their level of maturation and
experiences
 Transition from one stage to another is gradual, not abrupt
 Children often show aspects of two stages while going through
transitions.

The Growth of Thought:
Cognitive Development
 Jean Piaget (1920s-1980s)
 Assimilation/ Accommodation
 4 stages and major milestones

Sensorimotor


Preoperational


Centration, Egocentrism
Concrete Operational


Object permanence
Decentration, Reversibility, Conservation
Formal Operational

Abstraction
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Schemes
 A cognitive structure or concept used to identify and
interpret information
 Assimilation
 The process by which new objects, events, or experiences, or
information is incorporated into existing schemes
• A child who calls
• Any male stranger “Daddy”
• the neighbor’s cat “doggie”
 Accommodation
 The process by which existing schemes are modified and new
schemes are created
 to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, or information
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Sensorimotor (0-2 )
 infants gain an understanding of the world through
their senses and their motor activities
 actions and body movements
 An infant’s behavior gradually moves from mostly reflexive to
complex and intelligent
 Infant learns to respond to and manipulate objects and use
them in goal-directed activity

Object Permanence

The realization that objects continue to exist, even when they
are not longer visible (be perceived).
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Preoperational (2-7 )

Symbolic Function

The understanding that one thing can stand for another



Pretend Play



An object, a word, a drawing
The use of words to present object
• saying the word milk instead of taking you to the fridge and
showing you want they want to drink
Imagining a block is a car
Imagining a doll is a real baby
Egocentricism

Thinking characterized by a limited ability to share another
person’s viewpoint

everyone sees what they see, thinks as they think and feels as they feel.

Results in illogical thinking
Animism- the belief that all things are living

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Preoperational (2-7 ) cont.

Centration


The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem,
neglecting other important aspects.
Irreversibility

The inability to envision reversing an action
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Concrete Stage
(ages 7-11 or 12 years)
 Conservation


The concept that a given quantity of
matter remains the same despite being
rearranged or changed in appearance,
as long as nothing is added or taken
away
Reversibility

The realization that any change in the
shape, position, or order of matter can
be reversed mentally
Figure 10.7 Piaget’s conservation task
Piaget’s Conservation Tasks
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Formal Operations
(ages 11 or 12 years and beyond)

Preadolescents and adolescents can apply logical
thought to abstract, verbal, and hypothetical
situations and to problems in the past, present, or
future

Hypothetic-deductive Thinking
The ability to base logical reasoning on a hypothetical
premise
 Can comprehend abstract subjects like philosophy and
politics and become interested in the world of ideas
 Begin to formulate their own theories and think of
what might be
 Conceive of “perfect” solutions to the world’s and
their own problems

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Formal Operations Continued
 Naïve Idealism
 A type of thought in which adolescents construct ideal solutions for
problems
 Teens with divorced parents may idealize the non-custodial parent

Imaginary Audience
A belief of adolescents that they are or will be the focus of attention
in social situations and that others will be as critical or approving as
they are of themselves
 Teens spend many hours in front of the mirror trying to please this
audience


Personal Fable

An exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibility
 may be the basis for adolescent risk taking
 Many believe they are somehow indestructible and protected
from misfortunes that befall others
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
What Stage
 Hides under a table and assumes that if she can’t see
your eyes, you can’t see her.
 Rolls a ball of clay into a snake and does NOT believe
that the amount fo clay has increase
What Stage
 You hide a toy behind your back and the child thinks
that it is gone.
 You break an Oreo into pieces and the child thinks
that there is now more cookie to eat.
Discussion Question

Your younger brother is 2 ½ years old. You are
trying to teach him some new words. Using
Piagetian ideas like assimilation and
accommodation, what approach would you take
and what would you expect to happen. Give
some examples of words you would teach him
and how you would do it. Describe the
achievements and limitations of your brother’s
stage of cognitive development.
Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
 Criticisms
 Piaget underestimated children’s abilities
 Problems with stage theories
 Universality
 Vygotskey’s sociocultural theory
 Are some cognitive abilities innate?
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Approach
Hypothesized that much of cognitive development results from
the child’s internalization of information that is acquired
socially, primarily through the medium of language.
 Children come equipped with basic skills
 Perception
 Ability to pay attention
 Certain memory capacities
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Approach
 Scaffolding
 A type of instruction in which an adult adjusts the amount
of guidance provided to match a child’s present level of
ability
 Direct instructions are given
First for unfamiliar tasks
 As competency increases the teacher or parent gradually withdraws
from direct and active teaching
 The child continues toward independent mastery of the task


Naturally occur with in the context of parent-child
interaction

Helping a child learn how to put
the right shapes in a hole
Vygotsky’s Scaffolding
 Parents teaching their
child to ride a bike may
use scaffolding.
 First by providing direct
and continuous
instruction and then
gradually withdraws from
active teaching and
proficiency increases.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
 Vygotsky and Piaget’s studies lead to Kohlberg’s work:
 Vygotsky’s view on moral development



Culture, by means of language and religious instruction, molds the
individual to conform to its standards of acceptable behavior
Piaget’s view on moral development
Children’s level of cognitive development interact with society
 Kohlberg



Studied moral development by presenting a series of moral
dilemmas
More interested in the reasons for participants responses than
whether behavior was judged right or wrong.
Classified moral behavior into three levels
 Each level having two stages
 People progress one stage at a time
Figure 10.8 Kohlberg’s stage theory
A Moral Dilemma
In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer.
There was one drug the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium
that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was
expensive to make, and the druggist was charging ten times what it cost him.
He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2000 for a small dose of the drug.
The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the
money, but he could only get together $1000, which was half of what the drug
cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it
cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug,
and I am going to make money from it”. So Heinz got desperate and broke into
the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife (Colby, et al., 1983, pp.77).
What moral judgment would you make about the dilemma?
Should Heinze have stolen the drug?
Why or why not?
Discussion Question:
 What moral judgment would you make about the
dilemma?
 Should Heinze have stolen the drug?
 Why or why not?
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
 Preconventional
 Moral reasoning is based on the physical
consequences of an act:
 Reasoning and actions governed by standards
of others and not internalized standards

Stage 1- Punishment orientation


“right” is whatever avoids punishment
Stage 2 –Naïve reward orientation
Right is what ever is rewarded,
 benefits the individual, or
 results in a favor being returned

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
 Conventional: individual has internalized
standards of others.
 right and wrong are based on the internalized
standards of others
 Right is whatever helps or is approved of by
others
 Whatever is consistent with the laws of society

Stage 3 -Good boy/good girl orientation

Good behavior is that which



Pleases others
Helps others
is approved of by others
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
 Conventional (cont)

Stage 4 – Authority orientation

Right and wrong is determined by society’s
rules and laws, which should be obeyed rigidly
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
 Postconventional
 Individual’s weigh moral alternatives
 Realize the law may conflict with basic human rights
 “Right” is whatever furthers basic human rights


Stage 5- social contract orientation
 Believes the laws are formulated to protect both society and the
individual
 Laws should be changed if they fail to do so
 Society’s rules are fallible rather than absolute.
Stage 6- individual principles & conscience orientation
 ethical decisions based on universal principles
 Respect for human life, justice, equality, and dignity
 Believe following conscience may require violation of laws
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
 Important Concepts
 Kohlberg realized discussion of moral dilemmas
does not reliably improve moral behavior
Direct teaching of moral values is necessary
 General cognitive development strongly influences how children
respond to moral teaching
 Young children’s ability to infer moral messages is strongly linked
with reading comprehension skills
 Parent’s who read moral stories to children (Little Red Hen)
should provide explicit information of the moral message and how
it relates to the characters in the story

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
 Important Concepts
 Kohlberg’s stages of development occur in all
cultures
 Gilligan asserts Kohlberg’s theory is sex biased
Research did not include women or mercy, compassion, love, or
concern for others
 Content of moral reasoning differs between sexes but does not
differ in the complexity of moral reasoning


Other critics assert moral reasoning and moral
behavior not the same

People can be capable of making mature moral judgments yet
fail to live morally
Discussion Question

During a game of “hide and seek,” your brother
breaks a dish. He tries to hide it from you by
putting it under the cushion of the couch. When
you find it, he tries to deny that he did it and
then he starts crying and says he is scared of
getting in trouble. Describe his stage and level of
moral development according to Lawrence
Kohlberg. Describe a hypothetical response he
might give if he were in either of the other two
levels.
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
 Erik Erikson (1963)
 Eight stages spanning the lifespan
 Psychosocial crises determining balance between opposing
polarities in personality
 Individuals progress through eight psychosocial stages
 Each one is defined by a conflict involving the individual’s
relationship with the social environment
 Each must be satisfactorily for health development to
occur
 Adult personality foundations are laid in the four
childhood stages
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
Figure 10.6 Erikson’s stage theory
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
 Trust vs. Basic Mistrust (birth-1 year)
 Develop a sense of trust or mistrust
 Depending on the degree and regularity of care, love, and affection
they receive from the mother or primary caregiver
 Basic trust is the cornerstone of a healthy personality
 Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (2-3 years)
 Children demonstrate independence by saying “No!”
 Develop physical and mental abilities
 Initiative vs. guilt (4-6)

children begin to develop initiative
 Industry vs. inferiority (6-11, puberty)
 Children begin to enjoy and take pride in making and doing things
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
 Later stages
 begin with puberty
 Not strongly tied to chronological age
 Represent important themes in adult life
 Identity vs. Role confusion (adolescence)
 Identity crisis should lead teens to an idea of how they fit into the
adult world
 A healthy identity leads to next stage
 Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)

Leads to finding a life partner or acceptance of single life
 Generativity vs. Stagnation/self-absorption (middle
adulthood)
 The desire to guide the next generation via parenting, teaching, or
mentoring
 Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)
 The acceptance of one’s life in preparation for facing death
Discussion Question
 Using the theory of Erik Erikson, indicate which
stage of development you are in. Identify the
developmental stage of each of two of the following
your parents, your siblings, your children. Explain.
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
 Important Concept
 a great deal of evidence supports a trusted
caregiver in infancy is critical to later development

Will address this further during discussion of attachment
Infancy
Attachment

The strong affectionate bond a child forms with
the mother or primary caregiver.
Infancy
Attachment

Separation Anxiety

Emotional distress seen in many infants when they are
separate from people with whom they have formed
attachments

The fear and distress shown by a toddler when the parent leaves

occurs from 8 to 24 months
reaches a peak between 12 and 18 months


Stranger Anxiety
common in infants at about 6 months
 increasing in intensity until about 12 months
 declining intensity in the second year
 greater in an unfamiliar setting, when a parent is not
close at hand, and when a stranger abruptly approaches or
touches the child.

Infancy
Attachment

Harry Harlow’s Rhesus Monkeys (Harlow, 1958,
1958)

Contact Comfort
 The comfort supplied by bodily contact rather than
nourishment is what formed the basis of infant
monkey’s attachment to it’s mother.
Infancy

Remember the statement regarding Erikson’s Theory stating
a great deal of evidence supports a trusted caregiver in
infancy is critical to later development
Attachment

Three (four) patterns of attachment identified by
Mary Ainsworth and others
Detailed observations of attachment-related
behaviors in a mildly stressful experience
involving separation from their mother and a
stranger in an unfamiliar lab situation (strange
situation) revealed three major patterns of infant
behavior:
Infancy
Attachment
 1.
Secure Attachment:

infant was distressed when mother left, comforted by
her return, and engaged in active exploration when she
was present. Caregivers observed to be consistently
available and responsive (60% -65%).
Infancy
Attachment
 2.
Avoidant attachment:

infants are not distressed by separation, avoid contact
with their caregiver, keep attention directed towards
toys (but with low interest and enthusiasm).
Caregivers consistently unresponsive to their infant’s
bids for comfort, especially for close bodily contact
Infancy
Attachment
 3a.
anxious/ambivalent:

infant was both anxious and angry and were
preoccupied with caregivers to a degree that it
precluded exploration. Caregivers exhibit inconsistent
responsiveness to infant’s signals, at times are
unavailable or unresponsive, and at other times
intrusive
Progress Before Birth:
Prenatal Development
 3 phases
 germinal stage = first 2 weeks


embryonic stage = 2 weeks – 2 months


conception, implantation, formation of placenta
formation of vital organs and systems
fetal stage = 2 months – birth
bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain
cells multiply
 age of viability

Figure 10.1 Overview of fetal development
Environmental Factors
and Prenatal Development
 Maternal nutrition
 Malnutrition linked to increased risk of birth
complications, neurological problems, and
psychopathology
 Maternal drug use
 Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs
 Fetal alcohol syndrome
Environmental Factors
and Prenatal Development
 Maternal illness
 Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, severe
influenza
 Prenatal health care
 Prevention through guidance
Discussion Question

Imagine that you are a developmental psychologist
working in a hospital on an interdisciplinary team. You
first patient of the day is a woman who tells you that she
is concerned that her pregnancy is not developing
normally. She is two months pregnant. Please answer
the following questions:



a. What are the stages of normal prenatal development?
Describe each stage and what occurs in each.
b. What physical and psychological influences could affect the
fetus?
c. What else would you need to know to evaluate her situation?
The Childhood Years: Motor Development
 Basic Principles
 Cephalocaudal trend – head to foot
 Proximodistal trend – center-outward
 Maturation – gradual unfolding of genetic
blueprint
 Developmental norms – median age

Cultural variations
Adolescence: Physiological Changes
 Pubescence
 Puberty
 Secondary sex characteristics
 Primary sex characteristics
Menarche
 Sperm production


Maturation: early vs. late

Sex differences in effects of early maturation
Figure 10.9 Physical development at puberty
Adolescence: Neural Changes
 Increasing myelinization
 Cha…
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